Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight directly into electricity using semiconductor solar cells. A solar PV system consists of solar panels, a mounting structure, wiring, an inverter, and often battery storage. Solar energy is the most practical renewable energy source for most homesteads, with system costs having declined by 80 percent since 2010. A typical homestead solar system generates 3 to 10 kilowatts, sufficient for lighting, refrigeration, water pumping, and basic appliances.
Grid-tied systems connect to the utility grid and can sell excess power back through net metering. They are the most economical option in areas with net metering policies. Grid-tied systems do not provide power during grid outages unless paired with battery storage.
Off-grid systems operate independently of the utility grid and require battery storage to provide power at night and during cloudy weather. They are sized for the peak load and the lowest solar production of the year. Off-grid systems are more expensive per kilowatt-hour than grid-tied but provide energy independence.
Hybrid systems combine grid connection with battery storage, providing backup power during outages while still allowing net metering. They are the most flexible option but the highest initial cost.
Solar panels are rated by their peak power output in watts under standard test conditions. A standard residential panel produces 300 to 500 watts. Panels are connected in series strings to reach the inverter's input voltage range. The mounting structure can be roof-mounted, ground-mounted, or pole-mounted. A south-facing roof with a 30 to 45 degree tilt is optimal in the northern hemisphere.
The inverter converts DC power from the panels to AC power for household use. String Inverters handle multiple panels wired in series. Microinverters attach to each panel, optimizing individual panel output and providing monitoring at the panel level. Power optimizers are a middle option, installed at each panel but feeding a central string inverter.